Psychology Articles

There are different fields of psychology each assuming a study of different aspect of human behaviour as it relates to social, mental, emotional and developmental issues. Whilst clinical psychology looks at diagnosing and treating disorders of the brain, emotional disturbances and behaviour problems, child psychology looks at the mental and emotional development of the child and is also a part of developmental psychology which takes into consideration the study of change in behaviour that occurs throughout the lifespan of the child.

Cognitive psychology looks at how the human mind receives and interprets impressions and ideas while social psychology examines how the actions of others influences the behaviour of an individual (Webster’s New World Medical Dictionary).

Consequently there are several schools of thought on the subject and countless tests, assessments and research have been carried out in these different branches of psychology, each addressing issues and causes as they relate to human behaviour. The branch of psychology relating to the child however has seen a great deal of interest over the years. Understanding the mystery that is the child has been the subject of endless studies and debate. Out of this has emerged a great spotlight on the family hence greater recognition is placed on the impact of various family related factors on the overall development and social interaction of the child. Some of these factors include the roles of parents or guardians, spousal separation. Children are seen as vulnerable beings who are therefore easily affected by changes to their ‘familiar’. Since these impacts so greatly on the child, quite a lot of children enter the school system each year plagued with varying behavioural issues. These issues as we will come to see later on can have dire consequences for the child as well as those having responsibility for the child.

The idea that children are extremely complex individuals is brought out in the emphasis that psychologists place on childhood studies.On the one hand are those children who are anxious and afraid while on the other are the ones with aggression and deceit. However there are also those who do not fall into either of these groupings. From some of the highlighted studies carried out in different parts of Britain, it was found that the percentages of school age children who are considered as having behaviour problems is quite high with some studies showing as high as 33% in combined levels of behaviour difficulties. These problems are as varying in types and levels as they are in root causes among which are gender and class. Some of these problems are seen from quite an early age and while some children will grow out of it others will continue to display difficult traits for quite some time. This may to a great extent depend on the cause of the problem. It becomes obvious that the role of the teacher can offer a situation that in itself can be quite a complex and daunting task especially for an individual who has no understanding of psychology as it relates to the child.

Having the knowledge of how and why children react the way they do to certain situations,and understanding how and why they are influenced by the people and situation created by their environment, will undoubtedly assist the classroom practitioner in assessment of and planning to meet the needs of these children. An understanding of how the classroom situation may offer challenges particularly to younger children is crucial to helping children adjust to and consequently enjoy their school life.

It is however in understanding the behaviour and more importantly the root cause of it that any individual can begin to address it in the appropriate context. Barnes proposes two contrasting perspective on behaviour as it relates to children with difficulty.The first from a medical point of view where the child’s behavior is inherent while on the other hand the problems are borne out of the social situation of which the child is a part. Whether or not either of these models is in fact correct is not very relevant but presents the idea that difficulty in children can be borne out of various contributing factors. Also, he highlights the idea that a “difficult” child can be something of a perception on what difficulty is. For one individual a child may be problematic while for another who is able to identify certain traits and characteristics, the child is perfectly normal and manageable.

The term difficult is quite relative. Difficulty in children will therefore manifest itself in different ways /forms and to different individuals. In this respect one might question whether this is indeed a difficult child or is it rather that the child is relating to different situations and individuals in a different way, testing the boundaries perhaps? An individual who is firm and set certain boundaries for the child may find it far easier to deal with that child than one who is more relaxed and does not set clear boundaries. Then again there are those children who because of some of the factors mentioned before, will display difficult behaviour.This behaviour will manifest itself in different ways. While some troubled children are withdrawn and shy others will act out their insecurities in a totally different way often being boisterous and angry, refusing to conform to requirements. Some of the common factors that often manifest itself in school age children are tantrums, withdrawal, and refusal to conform among others.

It is in understanding the groupings children’s behavior is generally classified into that the teacher will be able to cope in the classroom.

One of the key roles of the teacher apart from the ability to teach is the ability to maintain class control which involves managing behaviour in the classroom. As mentioned before, classroom behaviour will manifest itself in different ways. This involves children who refuse to do as asked, including completing tasks, children who are constantly out of their seats disturbing others, consistent talking and even bullying. Ultimately the teacher has to be able to deal with and understand difficult children. This task can prove quite challenging. Pupils come to school from all types of backgrounds and situations and consequently with all types of issues.

With the focus of the Education system today so result driven, teachers are placed under extreme pressure to ensure that students achieve often unrealistic targets. Schools are often also guilty of placing expectations on pupils based on school type, region and age rather than focus on the individual child and his/her circumstances. Therefore they are seen as problematic when their behaviour falls outside the acceptable range of tolerance and age appropriateness.

In order for all students to achieve their maximum potential the classroom atmosphere must be free of any and all situations which may be stressful to both the pupils and the teacher, for there to be a consistent approach to learning and teaching in the classroom it is important that the teacher be armed with a lot more than an excellently drafted lesson plan. This awareness begins with the process of the entire school understanding key issues in child development and child psychology. While most schools today have a behaviour policy and generally they do try to enforce this, it is more important for schools to focus on child development issues in order to understand and deal effectively with behavior in children. What teachers need most therefore are not so much insets on enforcing the behaviour policy but looking more closely at understanding the causes of the behaviour.

Some schools of thought believe that schools should develop a ‘consistent’ Behaviour Management Plan that incorporates different techniques. These techniques together should enable the schools to deal with the most common classroom behaviours. This involves the teacher’s ability to develop and apply different strategies that will address behaviour in the classroom. This encourages the use of a fixed set of rules.The problem with this however is that as we have mentioned before no two children are alike and similarly no child’s problems are the same. Assuming however that the teacher has got grounding in psychology as it relates to children, this model can in effect be quite instrumental and effective. It is however important that key issues are addressed. Some of these will include consideration given to the stage and development of the children in question, ensuring that the child is treated with respect and fairness, considering whether it will enable the child to meet targets and achieve goals and whether it allow for continuity outside of the classroom. However to conform to this school of thought without taking into consideration the above issues associated with that child could possibly lead to further problems for the teacher and ultimately the child.

A teacher who is armed with the psychological facts is undoubtedly in a good position to be able to understand and therefore cope effectively with children displaying difficult behaviour. Being aware of the fact that a child with temper tantrums may only be craving attention, other children behaving out of sort or acting up in class may simply be rebelling against the inability to express themselves at home. Expressions of fears and mistrust in others may stem from deeper more disturbing causes either imminent or suffered at an earlier stage in their development. Problems at home, in their society, within their peer groups, childhood development and socialization, parental bonding or lack of it, sibling rivalry, peer pressure, molestation are only a few of the issues that children come to school with. The teacher is not just a facilitator but a confidant and often has to deal with issues that students will confide in them. It is aslo important therefore that the teacher be aware of certain protocols governing student’s confidentiality issues and how to proceed in identifying the right channel through which to direct the child. Since the child spends a much greater part of the day in the care of the teacher, the teacher is in a good position to spot inconsistencies and changes in a child’s behaviour patterns. This is where being able to identify and put a name to symptoms might prove crucial to helping a child going through a difficult situation.

The ability to differentiate between behaviour that is relevant to a child’s developmental stage as against behaviour that is distinctly caused by psychological disturbance, will be crucial to the early years teacher. But an understanding of when this behaviour is a normal attribute for a child of that age and when it is not, is key to pinpointing the emergence of a problem. Clinginess, bed wetting and tantrums are named as key traits among these young children. While these will be acceptable in very young children it becomes a concern if these traits continue into later stages of development. Certainly, an awareness of how children relate to environmental changes and routines will sometimes impact negatively on their behaviour.Some children may display different patterns of behaviour at home than at school. Then again acceptable behaviour will be relative to the expectations of those making the judgment and also to each individual child.

Since one must first underpin the cause of the problem in order to be able to attempt to find a solution, the teacher who has no understanding of psychology will try to apply various conventional methods of discipline to remedy a child’s behaviour and in doing so may only worsen the situation. Some simple remedies can sometimes alter a child’s behaviour in a radical way. So a child who acts up because he/she lacks attention,given small ‘jobs’ or tasks of responsibility in the classroom can change so much of that child’s behaviour because the child now begins to feel self-worth and see him/herself as being as good as or even better than other children. All that the child needed was a confidence boost.

Maria Montessori was born in the town of Chiaravalle (province of Ancona, Italy) in 1870. She became the first female physician in Italy upon her graduation from medical school in 1896. Then, she was chosen to represent Italy at two different woman’s conferences, in Berlin in 1896 and in London in 1900.

Her clinical observations led her to analyze how children learn, and she concluded that they build themselves from what they find in their environment. Shifting her focus from the body to the mind, she returned to the university in 1901, this time to study psychology and philosophy. In 1904, she was made a professor of anthropology at the University of Rome.

Maria Montessori is known as a developer of Montessori approach based on a child psychology. It can be established only through the method of external observation. We must renounce all idea of making any record of internal states, which can be revealed only by the introspection of the subject himself. Her intention was to keep in touch with the researches of others, but to make herself independent of them, proceeding to work without preconceptions of any kind. She confirmed that “all methods of experimental psychology may be reduced to one, namely, carefully recorded observation of the subject”. Treating of children must necessarily intervene the study of development. Discipline is another very important part of Montessori approach and it must come through liberty. She calls an individual disciplined when he is master of himself, and can regulate his own conduct when it shall be necessary to follow some rule of life.

Such a concept of active discipline is not easy to comprehend or to apply. But it contains a great educational principle, very different from the old-time absolute and undiscussed coercion to immobility.

What about lessons in school?
In Montessori method the lesson corresponds to an experiment. The more fully the teacher is acquainted with the methods of experimental psychology, the better will she understand how to give the lesson. In the first days of the school the children do not learn the idea of collective order; this idea follows and comes as a result of those disciplinary exercises through which the child learns to discern between good and evil. The lessons are individual, and brevity must be one of their chief characteristics. Another characteristic quality of the lesson in the is its simplicity. It must be stripped of all that is not absolute truth. The teacher must not lose herself in vain words. The carefully chosen words must be the most simple it is possible to find, and must refer to the truth. The third quality of the lesson is its objectivity. The lesson must be presented in such a way that the personality of the teacher shall disappear. There shall remain in evidence only the object to which she wishes to call the attention of the child.

Montessori approach is also based on exercises of practical life such as personal cleanliness, intellectual exercises (objective lessons interrupted by short rest periods;nomenclature, sense exercises), gymnastics (ordinary movements done gracefully, normal position of the body, walking, marching in line, salutations, movements for attention, placing of objects gracefully), free games, directed games (if possible, in the open air), manual work (clay modeling, design, etc.), collective gymnastics and songs, and exercises to develop forethought – caring for the plants and animals.

In order to protect the child’s development, especially in neighborhoods where standards of child hygiene are not yet prevalent in the home, it would be well if a large part of the child’s diet could be entrusted to the Montessori school. It is well known today that the diet must be adapted to the physical nature of the child. The diet of little children must be rich in fats and sugar: the first for reserve matter and the second for plastic tissue. In fact, sugar is a stimulant to tissues in the process of formation. As for the form of preparation, it is well that the alimentary substances should always be minced, because the child has not yet the capacity for completely masticating the food, and his stomach is still incapable of fulfilling the function of mincing food matter. Consequently, soups and meat balls should constitute the ordinary form of dish for the child’s table.

There are many crucial parts of Montessori method that I will try to explain on my own website, and in the other articles. Montessori method as every other method has some positive and negative sides that other
psychologists are researching.

http://parenthomecareer.webs.com

Parent with experience
http://parenthomecareer.webs.com

Abstract:

In this article we will explore a case study as seen in a Chinese mental health clinic in Shanghai. The presenting case will look at the effects of China’s one-child-policy but in particular the strategies employed by parents to control children not living up to their expectations at an early age. We will also consider parental guidance in line with established treatment covering behaviourism and transactional analysis methodology.

Introduction:

In China in order to control a rising population and the threat of economic and social crisis the government of China regulate birth rates across the country. In order to supervise the population a strict law is enforced under the one child policy. Although human rights groups and Western ideology of freedom conflict with the Chinese population control methods such as forced abortion, abandonment of female children and the main cause of child kidnapping and trade the Chinese recognise the need for this policy or future starvation and social breakdown through over-population in the future is inevitable. Even at its present growth rate at one child per family, China will still have the largest population in the World with limited recourses to support such a growth rate.

However for psychologists the interest is more focused on the social consequences of this policy to the mental health of children born into homes with only adults for company and no siblings to interact with and learn from. In a previous paper we explored the problem with under-developed skills in empathy, social communication and relationships. In this paper we will focus on a single child as a case study that has generalised to a population that is now obsessed with educational attainment and social monitory success.

Case Study:

A Chinese mother brought her nine year old boy to a foreign psychologist practicing in Shanghai as a counsellor and psychology professor. The mother explained the boy’s problems in the following way:

Mother – “my boy eats very slowly at dinner times, the family all eat together but he will take almost one hour to eat and often just plays with the food pushing it about his plate. He also does not complete his homework for school and the teacher often complains to us about his slowness in class, his lack of friends and poor performance on tasks usually through his slowness to start and finish. In addition to this he often falls asleep at his desk at home and I have to wake him in order to get him to his bed.”

Psychologist: “how do you deal with his behaviour and what is his teacher’s normal response to his behaviour on class?”

Mother: “both the father and I shout and scream at him to finish his dinner or homework. We tell him what the teacher says about him and how he is making his parents lose face in front of her. When he is in class his teacher shouts and complains to him all the time – and often the other children think he is slow and unfriendly to them.

Psychologist: “What is the boy’s reaction to all this shouting and screaming that happens at home and school?

Mother: “he does not seem to care. He just carries on in his slow way. If we try to hurry him he will go into a tantrum until we leave him to continue with his meal or play.

Further information;

Although the interview went into further details about the boy’s behaviour the psychologist was more interested in the behaviour of those the boy interacts with on a daily basis. The family is a typical Chinese extended household with the father’s parents living in the same apartment with the child and mother. The mother is a professional who works normal day-time hours and the father works full time in a government post. The grandparents are retired and look after the boy as far as taking and picking up from school and feeding the boy when he comes home with snacks. When the boy arrives home from school he watches TV while the grandparents give him junk-food snacks until the mother arrives home from work and then with the grandmother cooks the evening meal. After the meal the boy plays computer games until his mother insists he starts his homework which often takes the boy until 11pm when his mother then forces him to bed.

The above case in actually very typical in China with one child dominating the household and all the focus of the adults is on the child’s welfare. In Eric Berne’s (1960’s) theory of Transactional Analysis, every child is an attention seeking vehicle, trying to keep himself as the centre of attention towards their parents. Early in the 1940’s Piaget, also talked about children as self-centred (egocentric) as only seeing the world around them from their point of view. Berne however in order to understand a child’s behaviour talked about the child’s mind containing a “little professor”, what Berne meant was children are always trying to figure out how to best get from adults their emotional needs met. In an ideal world this would be a positive loving experience that would benefit the child and parent. However in this busy modern world parents are short of time and need to hurry and process the child’s needs in an often negative way. As in our case study the parents are giving the child negative attention through shouting and screaming – the child not able to get positive attention therefore welcomes the negative as better than nothing. It would not be surprising in the past if the child was in fact often ignored by the grown ups when he is behaving quietly. In combination with T.A. the theory of B. F. Skinner in the 1960’s then based on the work of Pavlov (Russian) who experimented with learned behaviour through conditioning, Skinner showed that rewards rather than punishment led to greater changes in habitual behaviour patterns and that positive reinforcement gave direction.

The first step for the boy’s “little professor” was when he discovered that eating very slowly got him an enormous amount of attention as the adults discussed his “problem” and trying to persuade the boy to eat faster and stop playing with his food. Sometimes the parents would use bribery, such as if the boy eats quickly he can have extra time to play his computer games. This not working they (parents) became frustrated and turned to threats, shouting and screaming at the boy. While the boy feels upset, he continues to eat slowly as this strategy works in getting him the constant attention he desires. The homework is another continuation of this attention seeking. Having finished the meal now the boy can make sure the attention continues. He deliberately takes much longer to complete tasks for his homework. The parents in China are obsessed with educational attainment (one of the leading reasons for suicide by young people in the country) and worry that if their child falls behind at any age they will not be able to catch up and where parents rely on their own future well-being in that their one and only child be successful at work to pay towards their own future retirement. The boy then continues this strategy at school. He sees the female teacher as a mother figure and sees her reaction is the same as his parents. The teacher screams and shouts at him just like at home. So in order to get more attention he continues to work slowly, often not finishing his work. Despite the other children resenting him for taking up so much of the teacher’s time who is giving him support and constant pressure to finish. In a class of 20 children he gets more than 70% of the teacher’s time in class. For this boy – perfect.

Treatment Suggestions:

Having considered the problem as attention seeking behaviour brought about by the reactions of the parents and teacher to the boy’s slow behaviour the psychologist summed up the boys problems as three-fold:

1. Slowness of eating
2. Inability to finish homework in a reasonable time
3. Slow at classroom activities

Parental problems as;

1. Lack of insight into the boy’s needs
2. Punishment by emotional outbursts of shouting and screaming
3. Failure to set boundaries within the family

Process of treatment:

The psychologist suggested a stepped approach by dealing with one problem in order to influence the other areas by transference. What is meant by this is that by solving one area of concern the other areas may follow without any definite action.

The easiest and most suitable for control was the slow eating at meal times. The rest of the family took approximately 20 minutes to eat the evening meal. It was suggested that the boy be allowed 30 minutes to consume his meal and at that point his plate should be removed and in front of him the remaining contents should be deposited into the bin (waste garbage). This should be strictly maintained for each meal time including breakfast if this is also a problem. The intended outcome would be that the boy quickly realises that he has a time limit to consume his food. He should not be allowed any other food until breakfast time no matter how much he says he is hungry and upset. The parents with the support of the grandparents should not shout or scream but remain calm and ignore any pleas for more food. Although this may cause some distress to the child and parents initially once the boy sees this pattern happening everyday and without any let -up his “little professor” will go to work to find a solution to his discomfort. Within a week he will begin to speed up his eating and consume more in the allotted time span. It is important for the parents to praise him at each meal he manages to complete within 30 minutes but no other reward should be offered. The child will soon understand that positive attention comes as a result of following the new schedule for meals.

Children never really learn through direct punishment either physical or emotional however children often learn quickly when the threat of removing what they feel they need most is taken away. In addition to the meal times, all computer games should be withheld until homework is completed in a fixed time period. Even if he completes the homework if it is after the fixed time the games are still with-held. Different school assignments may take differing times and this should be agreed on before he starts.

At school the teacher must be made aware of the treatment plan and also comply with the same regime. At lunch time the boy is given a time limit for his lunch – in the beginning a little longer than other children but gradually reducing the time to fit in with eating norms. If, as at home, he takes longer the food should be taken away from him. In class the teacher should ignore his slowness to complete tasks and only focus on those children that are in fact complying successfully. By praising good behaviour and ignoring bad behaviour the teacher sets up an atmosphere of positive attention. The boy and other problem children quickly see that in order to gain attention they must first comply with the teacher’s demands. It is important for the teacher to notice good behaviour and improvements and give positive feedback to encourage further progress.

In this particular case study it is important to get the support of the grandparents as they may see the initial suffering of the child going hungry and not able to use his games or watch TV as cruel. This may lead to subversive behaviour by the grandparents to give the child secret snacks and so undermine the process.

Teachers in China while very competent in their subject areas have little child psychology understanding and in line with Chinese culture feel suppressive control of children though intimidation and threats of violence keeps good order in the class, much like the wider society here. Learning is mainly old-fashioned rote style through fear of failure to be able to repeat via memory all aspects of a subject with very little insight into the application of learning. This goes right up and beyond University teaching in China.

Outcomes;

In this particular case study the child did improve but over a longer time scale than was initially envisaged by the psychologist, mainly due to three factors, the first the parents had become habituated to shouting at the boy and took some time to change to a calmer atmosphere. Second as anticipated the grandparents fought against the process wanting to spoil the child at every opportunity. Finally the school teacher failed to understand the process and through habit and poor teacher training continued to shout and scream at the students for failures in obedience matters.

Despite this as the psychologist suggested there was transference of learning from the meals to other tasks and the boy in fact after several weeks finished his meal at the same time as everyone else in the family. This transferred to his homework and the linking of his games to a withdrawal method when he failed to finish in a reasonable time.

The case is on-going with problems in the class-room persisting mainly to the lack of cooperation by the teachers.

Summery:

In this case study we have tested out the idea from Eric Berne that a chid will change strategy in order to maintain attention seeking behaviour through the mental act of his “little professor” finding the most efficient way to receive that attention he craves. Although this case was in China the method of course is universal and works perfectly well in most societies. Withdrawal learning is based on the work of B. F. Skinner and operational behaviourism from the 1960’s. It is the understanding from Transactional Analysis combined with behaviourist techniques of positive reinforcement that enable parents to change disruptive behaviour to more rewarding and positive child rearing.

Psychology is all about dealing with the human mind and kid psychology especially deals with the respect children consider. This report looks into the respect children reply to every day circumstances in life and how they deal with it sensitively. These replies vary from one being to another. As a result, the theme of kid psychology is very broad and complete. When in quest of proficient help you can seek suggestion from the child psychologist Sydney who impart aid in the following subjects only in Sydney:

- Neurofeedback Sydney
- Anxiety treatment Sydney
- ADHD Treatment Sydney
- Insomnia Treatment Sydney

As said by the psychologist Sydney, some of the general causes that result in the child’s behavioral differentiation are age, health, career, gender and nationality to name a few. Particularly, when dealing with child psychology the focus is on the notion, sentiments and deeds of the child.

Some of the general suggestions of childhood depression are illustration of desperation and feeling of worthlessness| insignificance| unimportance| irrelevance} and helplessness defenselessness. It is essential to get treatment for it instantaneously as it could lead to self destruction and suicidal opinion

Childhood Depression: reasons

The psychologists have not yet been able to understand the correct origin of childhood dejection. Some of the possible roots as arranged by the professionals are genetics heredity, atmosphere, physical health, life events| actions| trials} and family history. It could also be a result of a combination of distinctive causes like a history of dejection in the family or a loss in the family. There are times when even a pet bereavement results in shock.

Childhood Depression: Signs

The symptom of childhood dejection changes at distinctive times. The secret is to look for a change in deeds. At one point of time, your child may display either or more than one of these Symptoms:

- Not showing interest in school. As a result it leads to weak literary implementation as they are not liable to doing their homework’s or school projects.
- Social segregation, in the significance that they stop cooperating or playing with other kids.
- When the child is in a relentless situation of despondency.
- Childhood depression also leads to emotional outbreak in the form of crying.
- You will find your child being very thin-skinned to any form of denial.
- Your will observe that your child will lose focus constantly and find it complicated to ponder.
- You could also observe changes in your child’s sleeping practice.
- Modification in hunger is one common symptom. The child will augment the food ingestion or stop eating fully.

If you perceive that the above mentioned symptoms have been relentless for more than two weeks, then you should turn to a child psychologist specialist. You can talk about the feasible treatment with the specialist.

For more insights and further information about psychologists in Sydney visit our site http://www.chantalgazal.com.au

Motor Intelligence

During the first year of your child’s life you will see a change in their actions towards objects. Up to about 8 months sucking on an object is done simply as material for their own actions. From that time forward a child seems to become more curious about objects, looking at them longer, feeling them, exploring their surfaces and edges and turning the object around and around.

Here is a summary of the timeline of various motor intelligence stages:-

For the first 6 weeks of life,the ready-made reflexes of sucking, grasping, swallowing, etc. Basically infants acts first and thinks later.
Then for the next 4 months actions are coordinated into primary circular reactions i.e. habits or routines.
Up to about 9 months infants seek ‘to make interesting sights last’. For example, if an infant notices that waving their arms about makes a string of rattles shake and sound, they will continue waving their arms.
In the last few months of their first year, infants begin to take more notice of the connection between a specific action and a specific effect. They will now actively search for an object when it goes out of sight.
Infants become mobile at 12 to 18 months and as such become active investigators of anything interesting that is going on. Novelty is now sought for its own sake.
Finally between 18 months and 2 years, infants think before they act and are able to think about a sequence of actions in their minds before carrying the action out.

PLAY

In play, assimilation is the most predominant intellectual process since it involves the child taking in information about their environment and modifying it to fit with their own knowledge and experience.

During the motor skills stage of development (0-2 years), the type of play is largely repetitive with the infant attempting to master and control their movements. They explore their environment with all of the available senses and note what effect their behavior has on objects around them.

During the pre-operational stage of intellectual development (approximately 2-7 years) a child enacts make-believe play. At this stage the child can use symbols to stand for things in play – for example, a box can be a boat or a space rocket. Basically, in this type of play the child has the mental ability to change themselves or an object into something else.

Finally the operational stage of intellectual development (7 years onwards). A child’s thinking is now more logical and this is reflected in his play so that games with rules take over from games of make-believe.

If you would like more information on techniques described in this article please explore this Child Psychology Course

Nigel Arding is business owner of a private vocational college, CanAm College located at http://www.canamcollege.com and writes articles in support of the many unique courses available at the college.